Tanzania

Estimates on the number of people directly employed in artisanal and small-scale mining in Tanzania vary with the most recent estimate stating between 1 million (Hruschka 2015, 110) to 1.5 million miners (UNECA 2011, 69). As a comparison, the formal Tanzanian mining and quarrying sector (inclusive of minerals, oil and gas) was estimated to employ 35,900 people in 2016 (TEITI 2019, 9) with the most recent large-scale mining sector estimate in 2008 reported at 8,733 people (URT 2008 cited by Nyankweli 2012).

In Tanzania, the ASM sector is characterized by a three-tiered organization (Merket 2019). Primary Mining License (PML) holders often play a role of financiers and subcontract the management of mining operations to pit owners (Bryceson and Geenen 2016). The latter hire diggers and workers and provide them with food and equipment. Most of the ASM population is constituted by casual and highly mobile workers. Pit owners are usually the one baring most of the investments and risk (Merket 2019, 33). Revenues are generally distributed through Production Sharing Agreements (PSAs) rather than fixed wages paid in cash. Read more in the Tanzania Country Profile

Studies tend to estimate women’s participation between 20% and 30% of the ASM total workforce, depending on the region and sub-sector (UN Women 2016, 34). In 2003, 137,500 women were directly involved in ASM activities, representing 25% of the ASM workforce (Hinton, Beinhoff, and Veiga 2003, 3). According to a 2002 report, it was estimated that 137,500 women were directly involved in ASM in 2002, representing 25% of the ASM workforce (Hentschel, Hruschka, Priester 2002, 21). A study between 2017 and 2019 in Northwest Tanzania estimated that 20% of the workforce were women (Merket 2019, 45). The highest participation of women takes place in the salt subsector where they account for 38% of the ASM population (UN Women 2016, 32). While employment is difficult to balance with familial requirements, self-employed women also face impediments related to a lack of capital, equipment and technical skills (UN Women 2016).

In ASM, women tend to earn less than men and face a glass ceiling. Mining is traditionally a male-dominated industry where women are discriminated against with respect to land and allocation of mineral rights, which are normally used as collateral. Although they perform various activities from labor-intensive to processing, cultural beliefs and traditions further prevent them from entering pits, and in some cases, mining sites. Women are also denied any control over accessing financing as customary practices requires consent from their spouse or male relative to obtain a loan (Mutagabwa et al. 2018). This inability to access finance prevents them from investing in equipment and technology they may need to grow their business (Weldegiorgis, Lawson and Verbrugge 2018). Read more in the Tanzania Country Profile

An overall low level of mechanization characterizes small-scale mining in Tanzania although more recently, the ASGM sector and especially the gold processing sector have experienced a development in equipment (Merket 2019).

Health and safety remain problematic on ASM sites. There is a lack of clean drinking water and miners are often exposed to noise, dust, smoke and mercury pollution. Improper water management and the use of mercury near residential areas also represent a threat for surrounding communities. Because of its availability and despite its high toxicity, mercury is widely used in gold processing in Tanzania and exposes mining communities and particularly children to nervous degenerations. A 2019 survey by IPIS in Northwest Tanzania showed that almost all gold processing sites use mercury with children under 15 engaged on 18% of them. Mercury-gold amalgamate is also burned in open air settings, without protective equipment and often near residential areas therefore increasing the exposure to toxic fumes (Merket 2019). In Northwest Tanzania, the use of mercury is particularly concerning as it pollutes the waters of Lake Victoria and bio-accumulates in the fishes on which many African’s rely on for their alimentation (IPIS 2019). Moreover, Tanzania has experienced a rapid growth of cyanide-based leaching plants. Despite enhancing processing effectivity, the cyanide processing technique can also exacerbate the toxicity of mercury often present in tailings. Resident mine offices and district councils have limited capacity to conduct effective health and safety enforcement and monitoring (Mutagwaba et al. 2018). Read more in the Tanzania Country Profile

Gold

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) represents the largest sub-sector in Tanzania. Most of small-scale gold mining activities are concentrated in the Lake Victoria Greenstone Belt in the North and the Ubendian system in Western Tanzania (Hruschka 2015). Although ASGM generates income for numerous communities, in 2015 small-scale mining was estimated to only account for 10% of the country’s gold production due to low mechanization and an advanced LSM sector (Kinyondo and Huggins 2020, 1). Historical data from the Ministry of Energy and Minerals shows the production value of the ASGM sector varying between 2%-11% of total gold production value between 2004 and 2014 (World Bank 2015, 31). The majority of gold mining activities rely on underground operations. The production is shared among actors prior to processing with transactions, often taking place close to mining site to limit the risk of robbery (Merket, 2019). Gold trade is highly informal with a minority of actors holding a license, especially in remote areas. Read more in the Tanzania Country Profile

Development minerals

Development minerals such as sand, limestone, dimension stones or gypsum are mined by artisanal operators in Tanzania. Most of building material mining workforce is located in the Northern and Eastern regions and especially near major towns, where the production is destined. The mining of limestone dates from colonial times but is essentially taking place during the dry season as the processing phase is based often on burning and drying the limestone (Merket 2019). Read more in the Tanzania Country Profile

Colored Gemstones

Colored gemstone mining is widely distributed over the country, but most of the gemstone deposits are located on the Usagaran-Mozambique belt. Tanzanite is only mined on the Mirerani mining site, located in the Northeastern Manyara region. Tanzanite currently represents the majority of gemstone mining in the country in terms of value generated (Yager 2015). The Mirerani mining site is divided in four blocks. Tanzanite One Mining, the world biggest tanzanite miner and – supplier, exploits one of these blocks. Small-scale miners operate on the other three blocks (Kinyondo and Huggins 2019). Despite the presence of a number of specialized and monthly-paid positions, mining operations follow similar organizational schemes to ASGM. Read more in the Tanzania Country Profile

ASM impacts on Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are both positives and negatives. Formalization efforts can help mitigate the ASM sector’s challenges and further realize its potential. Incentive provisions for integration into the formal, legalized sector combined with the enforcement of legal requirements and the strengthening of the financial and technical capacity of miners can effectively accelerate poverty reduction in rural areas, provide more decent employment and enhance economic growth. Further, access to basic services and technical services to improve production methods and operations can help ensure clean water and sanitation, the protection and restoration of biodiversity as well as healthier miners and surrounding communities. Undertaking reforms to give women equal rights in the sector and access to ownership and control of overland and financial services in accordance with national laws will help increase gender equality in the sector. Formalized and well-managed ASM can also support other economic activities such as agriculture by creating the capital necessary for the growth of the sector, and thus contribute to reducing food insecurity in Tanzania. Children working in illegal mining who either skip class or drop out school can also be incentivized to return to schools. Read more in the Tanzania Country Profile

Mining Stratification

Tanzania mining legal framework recognizes the distinct nature of ASM and grants it a different status through different provisions concerning mineral rights, health, safety and environmental approvals as well as duration of tenure. These regulations have allowed, among other benefits, some small-scale miners to obtain credit and enter into joint ventures with larger companies (IFC 2011). However, from a broader development perspective, grouping artisanal and small-scale industrial mining together means that there is no mechanism to provide differentiated support to each according to the different needs of each group (Mwaipopo et al. 2004). Read more in the Tanzania Country Profile

Mining Formalization Regulations (ASM focus)

The ASM formalization approach in Tanzania is determined to maximize the socio-economic potential of ASM. ASM formalization began with the adoption of legal and institutional measures aiming at increasing both the productivity and regulation of the mining sector. The promotion of Primary Mining Licenses (PMLs) by the 1998 Mining Act was followed by consecutive attempts to simplify application procedures. In 2010, the Mining Act initiated a decentralization of the issuance process allowing applications at the mining-zone level (Bryceson and Geenen 2016). A web-based application portal was launched in 2015. From a total of 35 PMLs in the year 1999, the licensing rose to an average of about 5,500 PMLs per year between 2000 and 2017 (Merket 2019). After a period of focus on LSM and foreign investments, the election of President Magufuli in 2015 initiated a shift in the political discourse related to ASM. Read more in the Tanzania Country Profile

Laws and policy

• 1979 Mining Act
• 1998 Mining Act
• 2009 Mineral Policy
• 2010 Mining Act
• 2015 Tanzania Extractive Industries Transparency and Accountability Act
• 2017-2019 Amendments to the Mining Act

Read more in the Tanzania Country Profile